Ĭonceptualizations of goal orientation were proposed in the 1970s by educational psychologist Eison. Personality researchers have explored aspects of goal motivation as an aspect of identity, whereas social psychologists have focused on the thought patterns that arise across various contexts.
In an effort to better understand the mechanisms underlying achievement, personality and social psychology researchers expanded McClelland's work by examining how cognitive representations shape social experiences. Specifically, students with high goal orientation tended to value competence, expect success and seek challenges, while students with low achievement motivation tended to expect failure and avoid challenges. Students' goal orientations were shown to be predictive of academic performance. Research on achievement motivation can be traced back to the 1940s following the seminal work of David McClelland and colleagues who established the link between achievement and motivations (see need for achievement). It has also been used to predict sales performance, adaptive performance, goal setting, learning and adaptive behaviors in training, and leadership. Research has examined goal orientation as a motivation variable that is useful for recruitment, climate and culture, performance appraisal, and choice. Goal orientations have been shown to be associated with individuals' academic achievement, adjustment, and well-being. The focus is on how students think about themselves, their tasks, and their performance. Developed within a social-cognitive framework, the orientation goal theory proposes that students' motivation and achievement-related behaviors can be understood by considering the reasons or purposes they adopt while engaged in academic work. Goal orientation refers to how an individual interprets and reacts to tasks, resulting in different patterns of cognition, affect and behavior. A mastery orientation is also sometimes referred to as a learning orientation. In general, an individual can be said to be mastery or performance oriented, based on whether one's goal is to develop one's ability or to demonstrate one's ability, respectively. Goal orientation, or achievement orientation, is an "individual disposition towards developing or validating one's ability in achievement settings".
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